Health Governance in Bangladesh free essay sample

The main aim of this assignment is to uncover the dynamics of politics in the agenda setting of the health governance of Bangladesh through investigation of the role of deferent actors. In every policy process politics play an important role in idea generation, formulation and implementation. Policy reform in health sector is not different from other policy reforms. In the process of health policy making of any country, different actors try to bring the governance in their favor through playing significant role. This interaction of deferent actors in governance is known as politics of public policy. In the complex political process of health sector reform viability of special agenda, type of changes in policy reform, vision of national politics play an important role. In Bangladesh, health is one of the most important sectors since good health ensure more social and economic production and good quality of life. Beyond debate, priority of the health sector is forefront in the development discourse, even though, ‘health sector’ it is associated with multi sectoral factors and actors. We will write a custom essay sample on Health Governance in Bangladesh or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Thus, making implementation of health sector policy requires interplay of actors and factors from different sectors and levels: local, national, regional and international. Health situation in Bangladesh Till today, health situation in Bangladesh is not quite satisfactory. Lack of broad national health policy or policy vacuum, lack of policy priority setting, discontinuity of policy, lack of policy ownership, lack of resource allocation and lack of proper uses of resources due to lack institutional arrangement and elite dominated health sector are the main characteristics of health sector in Bangladesh. These characteristics create hindrance in the process of achievement of national and international goals and ultimately health situation of common people remains vulnerable. Bangladesh, being a country with small land size of 144,000 sq. km, has the burden of a huge population of 140 million. Still, with low per capita income and low literacy. Though Bangladesh has one of the strongest networks for delivering countrywide health services among developing countries, still the quality of services are not up to the mark and the services are neither client focused nor need based. In the following tables we demonstrated the trends of basic health indicators of Bangladesh Indicators1970s (1978-80)1980s (1990)1990s (1996-972000s (2003)2007 Population growth rate2. 72. 101. 741. 54NA Infant mortality rate(per 1000)150116776652 Maternal mortality rate105. 74. 13NA Delivery care by trained2581218 Under 5 mortality rate(per 1000)2991101169465 Table 3. 1: Trends of Basic Health Indicators of Bangladesh Heath governance system The government driven healthcare service has a network in all over the country from the centre to the extreme periphery, having two wings, one concerned with Population and Family Planning and the other concerned with Health in total. The service network has three approaches with primary care at upazilla level; secondary care at district level; and tertiary care at divisional level. To administer administrative activities the country has six administrative divisions and 64 districts and furthermore the districts are divided into upazilas (476 in number) and upazilas into unions (4,770). It is estimated that each of the union consist of 25,000 people in most cases each of the unions are again divided into nine villages. The upazila health complexes (463) acts as the first referral centers for primary health care along with one district levels hospitals at all districts (64) and most of the specialized hospitals resides at tertiary levels, mostly in Dhaka – the capital of Bangladesh. There is a standard setup for health services in an upazilla consisting of one upazilla health complex, one union health family welfare center (UHFWC) at union level (4062) and community clinics at village levels for every 6000 populations. It is mentionable that the community clinics were established under the Health and Population Sector Program (HPSP) a donor driven mega program – were not functioning till now and being revitalized in recent periods (from the regime of interim caretaker government to present AL government) Apart from general health services other services i. e. minimal reproductive, maternal, and child health care services get provided by these centers for the local people free of cost. The ratio of physicians and registered nurses to population is 241 and 136 respectively per million people and the number of hospitals available for a million people is 10, while the availability of hospital beds is one for about 4000 people. Non government organizations (NGO) and private sectors also play an important role to provide health services for the country. Numbers of NGOs have targeted projects, program and facilities to provide antenatal care (ANC) and safe delivery care. Besides in urban areas the number of private service delivery centers and private physicians are also on the rise. Thought the private clinics get operated privately, most of the doctors working in public hospitals work there on part time basis. These clinics have high charges and operate on commercial basis and people living in highest quintiles prefers such clinics for good quality service, which sometimes is not available in public sectors, as per the wealthiest quintiles perception. Recent politics in policy making Like many other developing country the lifetime of a public policy in Bangladesh depends on the change of political power and health policy is no exception. Visions and directions of all health policies got changed with the change of ruling government. Likewise the NHP 2000 was also interrupted as the government changed. After that two attempts were made to revise the policy till 2008. This instigated disruption in policy implementation rather than bringing any positive change. Many arguments took place in favor of policy reversal by the policyactors but the decision remained absolutely political. The following subsection illustrates the policy vulnerability of NHP 2000 as reflected in its reversal and formulation of NHP 2006 and 2008 and the political dynamics behind it (BHW, 2010). The first and fully operational national health policy was initiated in 1988 during the autocratic regime. In 2000 the democratic government promulgated a national health policy with five goals and objectives, in October 2001 after the Bangladesh Nationalist Party-led coalition government came to power. This new government deviated from NHP 2000 and got engaged in redrafting a new health policy, without rejecting the existing one in its entirety. This NHP 2000 was to some extent rejected when two of its essential components related to structural transformation were made dysfunctional. The issues were i) unification of health and FP wings ii) the issue of community clinic. Key policy actors (both politicians and bureaucrats) had staid uncertainties about the outcome of these two major reforms and believed that these two issues introduction had been politically motivated by Awami League (AL), which finally resulted in non-implementation. The following segments give an outline of how two major reforms proposed by the policy faced rejection. Integration or unification of health and FP wings the ornerstone of the NHP 2000 – was formally approved earlier through the HPSS and HPSP (1998-2003), did not experience smooth implementation even during the AL arena. This unification was intended to provide health and FP services in a package for improved service efficiency by minimizing duplication and overlapping of service delivery, which did not take place due to bureaucracy. During the era of 2001-2006, reversal of NHP 2000 became the interior of a whirlpool of conflicts, delays, and difference among policy players, including the bureaucrats, politicians, medical professionals and donors. At the early stage of BNP regime, the system of government held substantial power over the execution of NHP 2000. And the final decision on reversing unification was taken by the Health Secretary and the Prime Minister. The new senior level bureaucrats during this period contrasted the amalgamation and community clinics. The bureaucrats believed that incorporation would marginalize the FP section of the health sector, when it was decisive to uphold the responsibilities and sovereignty of the FP workers. The ruling BNP leaders were rigid to renounce the NHP 2000 since it was formulated by the previous AL government. And political leaders played a fundamental part in the policy implications during 2001-2006. It has been observed that the harmonization between the medical professionals and political leaders led to dealings with the bureaucrats and other forces and exercise more power (BHW 2010). The partial refusal of NHP 2000 can be accredited to the customs of confrontational politics and prejudice that permeates every level of the polity, rather than ideological dissimilarity often political parties. There was little ideological difference between the BNP and AL governments, as demonstrated in similar policy proposals of the two respective health policy documents. Interest group policy issues According to the views presented by the study respondents, numerous problems were highlighted by different levels of organizations and individuals. More than 160 organizations and individuals have submitted written demand to the Program Support Office (PSO), HNPSP, MoHFW more prior to the preparation of the final draft. All of these demands reflected personal or professional interests. The written comments covered about 70 issues and a significant number of NGO participation was seen. All the policy issues were not dominant. Weight of the problems and proper evidence and strategy to highlight the problems play important role to catch attention of the policy makers. Among the policy issues, following were more dominant compared to others. State policy in health governance State actors and non-state actors play their role in the policy process. During the time of agenda setting interest groups try to influence the policy makers to consider their preferable issues. Like other policy process, different actors and factors impacted the generation of ideas in health policy. Till today, health situation of Bangladesh is not satisfactory in term of ‘equity and justice’. In the literature of policy ownership, source of ideas/visions is treated as one of the major indicator to measure the ownership of policy (Osman, 2006). In public policy process ‘agenda setting’ is a stage where owner of ideas/vision and promoter of the ideas adopt different strategy to draw the attention of the policy makers. In public policy making ‘ownership’ can be measured with participation of different actors in policy process. In this connection role of the different actors were investigated in this study. According to Jhon Kingdon’s Garbage Can Model, an issue becomes agenda with three confluence â€Å"streams†. Different actors play their role from their own perspective in these steams. In this study it was found that three steams emerged at the same time and opened a window. In problem stream evidence production and dissemination were highly supportive for highlighting the problems of community health issues as policy agenda. In proposal stream national and international policy coherences, international and national good practices and positive attitude of donors were among other factors that supported the community clinic issues as policy proposal. Also, political support of the ruling party (AL) was also positive to highlight the community clinic and community health issues. These problems were highlighted in different documents of governments, NGOs and donors. Moreover, these problems were recognized by bureaucrats, politicians, media people, donors and NGOs. Apart from evidences, ordinary people through experiences and observations also recognized these problems. Thus, all stakeholders had good faith about these evidences. It can be said that three confluence streams emerged and opened a policy window to take a decision for establishing community clinic for solving the community health problems in Bangladesh. In every stream, different actors and factors played vital role to highlight the issue. Evidence is crucial to guide improvements in health systems and develop new initiatives. In this connection state actors and non-sate actors create evidence for highlighting the importance of a policy problem or issues. In this study effort has been made to analyze the system of evidence creation and evidence dissemination. From the systems perspective, it is important to understand how research and knowledge from various sources are produced and synthesized. In addition, effort has also been made to investigate how the research findings were highlighted to strengthen the demand of good health services for community people. These evidences revealed that maternal health situation and services have not reached to the satisfaction level. Situation of child health is still in an alarming condition for attaining national and international goals. Till now population problem is a big challenge for development of Bangladesh but evidence showed that there are human resource gaps in community level to offer proper services to the community people. Cost of health services, absenteeism and distribution of health service providers in the community level were dominant factors which played vital role to highlight the community health situation as a problem. It was found that about 160 organizations and individuals took part in the agenda setting process of the health policy. Among the participants, NGOs presence was significant considering their number. A one may wonder why a significant number of NGOs took part in the agenda setting process. The answer is a large number of NGOs are working in health sectors of Bangladesh whose mission is to highlight the common peoples’ rights and external support for doing policy advocacy. Majority of the participants’ expressed their personal, organizational or professional interest.. Health professionals from government side played significant role while creating evidences. In the absence of wide ranging government sponsored research these professional remained engaged in writing articles in journals and news papers. Due to contracting system of evidence creation, bureaucrats were guided or assisted y a number of consultants and their influences are decreasing nowadays. Apart from the findings of the present study many previous studies showed that during unification of two wings of MoHFW (family planning and health) IMED created evidence to analyze the context. Research findings showed that bureaucrats who were influential during the period of 1996-2001 did not able to exert influence after 2000. It is mentioned that successive health secretaries were either explicitly against or remained passive over the unification process and community clinic program, resulting weak bureaucratic leadership within the ministry. Among the professionals who are involved with party politics, DAB (Doctors Association Bangladesh, aligned with the BNP) and SCP (Shawdhinata Chikitshak Parishad, aligned with the Awami League) played influential roles in agenda setting health issues. In this study it is found that these members who are affiliated with SCP remained vocal from the very beginning of the policy process when Health Advisor of immediate past caretaker government (2008-09) initiated the process of health policy formulation. Historical evidences showed that DAB had great influence in the agenda setting during the draft preparation in 2006. In case of NHP 2010, SCP played an important role in community related agenda setting since they are well connected with the Prime Minister and Health Minister. Medical professionals, particularly physicians, were in favor of the implementation of major reforms under the NHP 2000. Previous researchers found that support of the professionals for the two major elements of the NHP 2000 was reflected in the policy document prepared by the Bangladesh Medical Association (BMA) (BHW, 2010). Donors provide financial supports during evidence creation. While offering financial support, donors imposed some conditions including methodology finalization and indicators setting which ultimately, influenced the process of making evidence based policy. In addition, donors suggested government to include NGOs in this process on the ground of GO-NGO collaboration or public-private partnerships. In the community health related evidence creation USAID, UNICEF and WHO played leading role since 2000. Thus, it can be said that donors had great influence in evidence creations about community health issues. Of course, this is not new in the health sector of Bangladesh. In case of evidence creation for Sector Wide Approach introduction donor community provide guidance and financial supports for evidence creation. When compared to equivalent government operations, NGO services generally run more efficiently and cheaply keeping closer ties with communities. For this reason, donors often favor them as entry points to accessing communities in Bangladesh, especially since the 1980s. In other words, NGOs become powerful and influential, especially because of their external sources of financial support, cooperation, and advocacy. In this regards, NGOs are considered as spokesman of donors. Civil society/NGOs are potential actors to highlight health rights and social welfare goals through mobilization of citizen demand. Through different activities NGOs emphasized on the decentralization as a means of localizing policy-making, bringing decision- making closer to disadvantaged groups, and encouraging local participation. Also NGOs are playing roles of academics and professionals by monitoring and analyzing contextual factors. In this study we found that NGOs remained more or less equivalent in the creation of evidences. Bangladesh health watch was in the leading position to provide evidence for policy making Present Government and Health Strategy: According to the majority portion of respondent, the present government consists with a number of health professionals and they were very much enthusiastic to promote the health facilities issues for ensuring the health rights of community people of Bangladesh. Also as a political party AL has commitment to the people to provide health services for the betterment of common people. Election Manifesto of AL in Election 2008 highlighted the health issues in the following way – â€Å"In order to ensure health facilities to every citizen of the country, the health policy of the erstwhile Awami League government will be reevaluated and adjusted according to the demands of the time. In the light of this policy, 18000 community clinics, established during Awami League rule, will be commissioned. † [Source: Election Manifesto of AL in Election 2008] Conclusion It can be said that proper evidence for highlighting the problem, stakeholders support in the solutions and strong political support highlighted the community health issues as issues to be considered in government actions. In evidence creation and conducting advocacy, NGOs who backed by the donors remained vocal. Top level bureaucrats also played their role with the help of consultants who were generally recommended by the donors. Finally, recognition of ruling political party played an important role in this regard.

Free Essays on Johann Sebastian Bach

Johann Sebastian Bach was one of the greatest composers in Western musical history. More than 1,000 of his compositions survive. Some examples are the Art of Fugue, Brandenburg Concerti, the Goldberg Variations for Harpsichord, the Mass in B-Minor, the motets, the Easter and Christmas oratorios, Toccata in F Major, French Suite No 5, Fugue in G Major, Fugue in G Minor ("The Great"), St. Matthew Passion, and Jesu Der Du Meine Seele. He came from a family of musicians. There were over 53 musicians in his family over a period of 300 years. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, Germany on March 21, 1685. His father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, was a talented violinist, and taught his son the basic skills for string playing; another relation, the organist at Eisenach's most important church, instructed the young boy on the organ. In 1695 his parents died and he was only 10 years old. He went to go stay with his older brother, Johann Christoph, who was a professional organist at Ohrdruf. Johann Christoph was a professional organist, and continued his younger brother's education on that instrument, as well as on the harpsichord. After several years in this arrangement, Johann Sebastian won a scholarship to study in Luneberg, Northern Germany, and so left his brother's tutelage. A master of several instruments while still in his teens, Johann Sebastian first found employment at the age of 18 as a "lackey and violinist" in a court orchestra in Weimar; soon after, he took the job of organist at a church in Arnstadt. Here, as in later posts, his perfectionist tendencies and high expectations of other musicians - for example, the church choir - rubbed his colleagues the wrong way, and he was embroiled in a number of hot disputes during his short tenure. In 1707, at the age of 22, Bach became fed up with the lousy musical standards of Arnstadt (and the working conditions) and moved on to another organist job, this time at the St. Blasius Ch... Free Essays on Johann Sebastian Bach Free Essays on Johann Sebastian Bach Bach As time passes, many composers leave unforgettable marks that people today look back onto and try to aspire to. Johann Sebastion Back, whom is no exception to this idiom, left a indelible mark. Many look back to his works to both learn and admire. He truly can be considered a music great. Bach, who came from a family of many musicians, was nothing short of a virtuosic instrumentalist as well as a masterful composer. Born in Eisenach, Germany, on March 21, 1685, he was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach. He taught his son the basic skills for string playing. Later Bach started playing the organ, which is the instrument he is known for in history. His instruction on the organ came from the player at Eisenach's most important church. He instructed the young boy rather rigorously until his skills went over anyone's expectations for someone of such a young age. Bach suffered greatly when his parents died in 1695. He then went to live with his older brother, Johann Christoph, who also was a professional organist. He continued his younger brother's education on that instrument, as well as introducing him to the harpsichord. After several years of studying with his older brother, he was given a scholarship to study in Luneberg, Germany. As a result, he left his brother and went to go and study there. The teenage years brought Bach to several parts of Germany. He mainly worked as an organist in churches because that is what he perfected from his young training. However, Johann Sebastian first found employment at the age of 18 as a violinist in a court orchestra in Weimar. Although he did not stay there very long, he was able to make good a good sum of money playing for the king. He soon after worked as a church organist in Arnstadt. It was here that Bach realized his standards and regards that he had for music. In Arnstadt as well as in many other places that Bach worked, he was known for getting into fights because of the quality... Free Essays on Johann Sebastian Bach Johann Sebastian Bach Johann Sebastian Bach was one of the greatest composers in Western musical history. More than 1,000 of his compositions survive. Some examples are the Art of Fugue, Brandenburg Concerti, the Goldberg Variations for Harpsichord, the Mass in B-Minor, the motets, the Easter and Christmas oratorios, Toccata in F Major, French Suite No 5, Fugue in G Major, Fugue in G Minor ("The Great"), St. Matthew Passion, and Jesu Der Du Meine Seele. He came from a family of musicians. There were over 53 musicians in his family over a period of 300 years. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, Germany on March 21, 1685. His father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, was a talented violinist, and taught his son the basic skills for string playing; another relation, the organist at Eisenach's most important church, instructed the young boy on the organ. In 1695 his parents died and he was only 10 years old. He went to go stay with his older brother, Johann Christoph, who was a professional organist at Ohrdruf. Johann Christoph was a professional organist, and continued his younger brother's education on that instrument, as well as on the harpsichord. After several years in this arrangement, Johann Sebastian won a scholarship to study in Luneberg, Northern Germany, and so left his brother's tutelage. A master of several instruments while still in his teens, Johann Sebastian first found employment at the age of 18 as a "lackey and violinist" in a court orchestra in Weimar; soon after, he took the job of organist at a church in Arnstadt. Here, as in later posts, his perfectionist tendencies and high expectations of other musicians - for example, the church choir - rubbed his colleagues the wrong way, and he was embroiled in a number of hot disputes during his short tenure. In 1707, at the age of 22, Bach became fed up with the lousy musical standards of Arnstadt (and the work... Free Essays on Johann Sebastian Bach Johann Sebastian Bach was one of the greatest composers in Western musical history. More than 1,000 of his compositions survive. Some examples are the Art of Fugue, Brandenburg Concerti, the Goldberg Variations for Harpsichord, the Mass in B-Minor, the motets, the Easter and Christmas oratorios, Toccata in F Major, French Suite No 5, Fugue in G Major, Fugue in G Minor ("The Great"), St. Matthew Passion, and Jesu Der Du Meine Seele. He came from a family of musicians. There were over 53 musicians in his family over a period of 300 years. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, Germany on March 21, 1685. His father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, was a talented violinist, and taught his son the basic skills for string playing; another relation, the organist at Eisenach's most important church, instructed the young boy on the organ. In 1695 his parents died and he was only 10 years old. He went to go stay with his older brother, Johann Christoph, who was a professional organist at Ohrdruf. Johann Christoph was a professional organist, and continued his younger brother's education on that instrument, as well as on the harpsichord. After several years in this arrangement, Johann Sebastian won a scholarship to study in Luneberg, Northern Germany, and so left his brother's tutelage. A master of several instruments while still in his teens, Johann Sebastian first found employment at the age of 18 as a "lackey and violinist" in a court orchestra in Weimar; soon after, he took the job of organist at a church in Arnstadt. Here, as in later posts, his perfectionist tendencies and high expectations of other musicians - for example, the church choir - rubbed his colleagues the wrong way, and he was embroiled in a number of hot disputes during his short tenure. In 1707, at the age of 22, Bach became fed up with the lousy musical standards of Arnstadt (and the working conditions) and moved on to another organist job, this time at the St. Blasius Ch... Free Essays on Johann Sebastian Bach Johann Sebastian Bach was one of the greatest composers in Western musical history. More than 1,000 of his compositions survive. Some examples are the Art of Fugue, Brandenburg Concerti, the Goldberg Variations for Harpsichord, the Mass in B-Minor, the motets, the Easter and Christmas oratorios, Toccata in F Major, French Suite No 5, Fugue in G Major, Fugue in G Minor ("The Great"), St. Matthew Passion, and Jesu Der Du Meine Seele. He came from a family of musicians. There were over 53 musicians in his family over a period of 300 years. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, Germany on March 21, 1685. His father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, was a talented violinist, and taught his son the basic skills for string playing; another relation, the organist at Eisenach's most important church, instructed the young boy on the organ. In 1695 his parents died and he was only 10 years old. He went to go stay with his older brother, Johann Christoph, who was a professional organist at Ohrdruf. Johann Christoph was a professional organist, and continued his younger brother's education on that instrument, as well as on the harpsichord. After several years in this arrangement, Johann Sebastian won a scholarship to study in Luneberg, Northern Germany, and so left his brother's tutelage. A master of several instruments while still in his teens, Johann Sebastian first found employment at the age of 18 as a "lackey and violinist" in a court orchestra in Weimar; soon after, he took the job of organist at a church in Arnstadt. Here, as in later posts, his perfectionist tendencies and high expectations of other musicians - for example, the church choir - rubbed his colleagues the wrong way, and he was embroiled in a number of hot disputes during his short tenure. In 1707, at the age of 22, Bach became fed up with the lousy musical standards of Arnstadt (and the working conditions) and moved o...

Commuity health hazards Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Commuity health hazards - Essay Example An analysis on the health risk is as follows. Cancer risk score was at 70%: non cancer risk score 100%: air released of recognized carcinogen 70%: air released of recognized development toxicants 70%: air released of reproductive toxicants 80%. From this review, it is clear that the region is facing a health threat from the environment pollutants (Pollution ReportCard, 2005). The collaborative on health and the environment is one organization involved in raising awareness on environmental health hazards. It does this by involving of the public in a dialogue to know the environmental problems facing the community and possible ways of solving the hazards (Health and the Enviroment, 2010). There also exist state laws that are responsible for monitoring the flow of waste products from industries. For example, there is the clean water act, which requires that, surface water be of high quality so as to ensure the safety of fish and wildlife population, and Safe drinking water for human consumption. Nurses also play a crucial role; they classify the health hazards, educate the public on the environmentally related diseases like lung cancer, and publish journals on environmental hazards and how they affect human health in the home, workplace, community, and globally (Maurer, Smith, & Leake, 2008). Maurer, A. F., Smith, C. M., & Leake, P. (2008). Environmental Health Risks: At Home, at Work, and in the Community, 4th ed. In A. F. Maurer, C. M. Smith, & P. Leake, Community/Public Health Nursing: Health for Families and Populations. Amsterdam: Elsevier - Health Sciences Division. Population ReportCard. (2005). Retrieved September 28, 2011, from Scorecard: The Pollution Information Site:

Access and Accessibility Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Access and Accessibility - Literature review Example The obvious aspect, therefore, is that accessibility is linked with numerous socio-economic opportunities and hindrances. Accessibility refers to the measure of the ability of a location to be reached by different people around it, or to reach different locations. It is, thus apparent that the scope and arrangement of all transport infrastructures are essential in determining accessibility to green spaces in urban areas (Comber et al 2011, p. 30). Access, on the other hand, refers to the capacity to go into or leave a green space. Access is, hence an absolute determinant of whether a location can be entered or exited. This paper appreciates both the concepts of access and accessibility and looks into the intricacies of both geographical elements with regard to green spaces in urban areas (Van 2007, p. 18). This is bound to provide an in-depth understanding of the green spaces in towns and cities, offering leeway for determining accessibility and access of green spaces in major towns (Van Herzele 2003, p. 120) As noted, access and accessibility are quite distinct. While accessibility varies according to one’s position, access is a relative concept, which is equal for all persons in an area. For instance, an areas of green space can be accessible by any person, be it by persons of high socio-economic status, low status, persons with disabilities, or fully-able bodied persons. Access to urban green space is, therefore, uniform wherever one is situated in the vicinity of the green space, provided that there is a capacity to enter or exit the green space (Heywood, Carver and Cornelius 2006, p. 96). When assessing the viability of the green spaces in urban areas, two important concepts must be considered. These are distance and time. These two factors typically affect accessibility in different capacities. Firstly, distance between the green space and a person’s location is bound to affect one’s ability to reach the green space and the time it takes to arrive at the green s pace (Handy and Niemeier 1997, p. 1183). In addition, time is relative in terms of the duration it takes for a green space to develop fully after its establishment. Time is relative because different locations within an urban area have distinct speed limits, which affect the time taken to travel through these locations. Distance does not change, but is it a contributor to the overall speed used to reach a specific green space. Because not all locations within an urban area are equally accessible, this implies inequality. The concept of accessibility, therefore, relies on two paramount factors that is the location and distance. Analyzing distance and location of the green space is a key aspect of GIS analysis (Kong, Yin, and Nakagoshi 2007 , p. 249). Firstly, location measures accessibility with regard to other green spaces in the areas and around the urban area. Infrastructure supports movement to and from green spaces. This implies that accessibility of green spaces is relatively p roportional to a

Foreign Direct Investment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Foreign Direct Investment - Essay Example (1) Over the same period, these countries also achieved a substantial increase in their exports, especially towards Western Europe. The question we address in this paper is whether FDI inflows have been a significant determinant of export growth in 12 CEE countries. To do so, we use a pooled data for the period between 1996 and 2004 and attempt to account for the effects of FDI on host economy exports. We separate the potential effects into supply-increasing effects (capacity effects) and FDI-specific effects. The supply-increasing effects arise when FDI inflows induce increases in the host country's production capacity, which, in turn, increases export supply capacity. The FDI-specific effects arise because foreign capital inflows may incorporate different competitive advantages, such as superior knowledge and technology and thus, higher productivity, or better information about export markets as compared to local firms. We believe that differentiating between these two effects of FDI on exports is especially important in terms of policy implications. It is often argued that successful FDI-promoting policies sh ould lead to, among other things, a significant increase in the host country's exports. ... In the following section, we provide a discussion of potential channels through which FDI may affect exports. Based on the discussion in this section, we present our empirical model in the next section. The empirical results are presented and compared to those of previous studies in the penultimate section. The last section concludes the paper. Effects of FDI on Exports - Theoretical Arguments This section discusses some theoretical arguments regarding the different potential effects of FDI on the host country's exports. Theory of Multinational Enterprise The theory of multinational enterprise (MNE) examines conditions under which firms may undertake FDI and become MNEs. (2) Such decisions may have consequences for host country's exports and it is a goal of this section to review parts of this theory that predict effects of inward FDI on host country's exports. Overall, the theory indicates that positive effects of inward FDI on a host country's exports may be expected when the host country and a home country have different factor intensities. In this case, the MNE may outsource some segments of its production process to the host country and export these (intermediate) products back to the home country (as well as other countries). Similarly, when the host country has a cost advantage and costs of trade are low (as compared to the trade costs of the home country), the host country may be used by the MNE as an export platform for serving its home market, as well as other markets. The starting point for the theory of MNE is the idea that firms must have certain advantages in order to become multinational companies. Dunning

Kaposi’s Sarcoma: Insights into its Understanding

Kaposi’s Sarcoma: Insights into its Understanding Abstract Kaposi’s Sarcoma (KS) is a common vascular tumor arising in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected patients and is one of the 27 conditions designated by the Centers for Disease Control as an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) defining illness. Human herpes virus-8 (HHV-8), now called Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpes virus (KSHV), is a member of ÃŽ ³ herpes virus family and is considered to be the causative agent of KS. This review aims to discuss KS and its association with HIV/AIDS with an emphasis on oral features, the role of HHV-8/KSHV in causation of KS, and the current challenges faced in management of the disease. Key words: acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, human herpes virus-8, Kaposi’s sarcoma, Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpes virus Introduction In 1869, Helmut Kobner, a German physician, appears to have been the first to describe cases of metastatic cutaneous sarcoma. In 1872, the Hungarian physician, Moricz Kaposi, described an idiopathic, multipigmented, tumor-like lesion of the skin that eventually was named Kaposi’s Sarcoma (KS).1,2 During the 19th century, KS was considered a rare disease and by the early 20th century, an increased incidence was suggested.2,3 KS is now a common vascular tumor arising in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected patients, and is one of the 27 conditions designated by the Centers for Disease Control as an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) defining illness.2,4 Human herpes virus-8 (HHV-8), also called Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpes virus (KSHV), a member of ÃŽ ³ herpes virus family, is considered to be the causative agent of KS.5 Clinical Features Based on epidemiology and demographics, there are four variants of KS: 1) Classic KS that is relatively benign and predominantly occurs in elderly men of Mediterranean, Eastern European, or Middle Eastern descent with a median age of > 70 years; 2) an Endemic or â€Å"African† form of KS that also occurs predominantly in men at a ratio of 3:1 with a peak median age of 35 to 39 years; 3) Iatrogenic or Post-transplant KS that may occur in HIV-seronegative immunocompromised individuals, long term users of steroids and cytotoxic drugs, and individuals with autoimmune disorders; and 4) AIDS-associated KS. Although the four variants of KS are distinctive, they share similar clinical and histologic features, suggestive of common pathogenesis.5 In contrast to classic KS, which is often limited to the extremities, AIDS-associated KS frequently involves the muco-cutaneous regions of the head and neck as primary sites, and visceral involvement is also present.6 Muco-cutaneous lesions of the head and neck region, occur in estimated 10% of AIDS patients.7 The oral cavity is frequently involved with the hard and soft palate, gingiva, and tongue being the most common sites.8,9 The prevalence of oral KS varies from 0-12% in Africa, and from 0-38% in United States and Europe.10,11 A high prevalence of oral KS was demonstrated in 18.6% of a group of HIV-infected patients in Zimbabwe. Since the advent of AIDS, KS has become more frequent in both the genders, the male to female ratio changing from 19:1 to 7:1, particularly in East Africa.12 On the basis of clinical appearance, AIDS-associated KS is classified into six major overlapping types: patch, plaque, nodular, telangiectatic, infiltrative, and florid.1,3,13,14 Oral lesions appear as red to purple macules, papules, or nodules that may ulcerate and cause local destruction.9,15 Although the clinical behavior of AIDS-associated oral KS is rather unpredictable, majority of the cases represent aggressive disease and have associated disseminated cutaneous and visceral lesions.16 Slow growing oral tumors are generally associated with patients who have no additional complicating opportunistic infections.17 Differential Diagnosis Early lesions of KS may be difficult to distinguish from ecchymoses, nevi, dermatofibroma, and lichen planus.18 Nodular or plaque like lesions overlying mucosa should be biopsied to rule out bacillary angiomatosis, hemangioma, pyogenic granuloma, angiosarcoma, or lymphangiosarcoma.18,19 Histopathology The cellular origin of KS is difficult to determine as lesions typically exhibit multiple cell types. The tumor is mainly composed of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells and spindle-shaped cells.20-23 The spindle cells, considered the tumor element, are of mesenchymal origin and have features that resemble both endothelial and smooth muscle cells.22,23 The tumor cells may be derived from cells of either lymphatic or venous differentiation.17,22 Also, biopsies of KS feature numerous slit like vascular channels and may present extravasation of erythrocytes, hemosiderophages, eosinophilic hyaline inclusions, and inflammatory infiltrate.9,20,21 The histogenesis of the spindle cell component, believed to be the KS tumor cell, remains controversial; although many studies favor an endothelial cell origin.22-24 Another highly debatable issue is whether KS is a clonal â€Å"neoplastic† lesion, or whether it is â€Å"reactive† and polyclonal. Most of the evidence suggests that many KS lesions are hyperplastic and polyclonal in nature, but that either these lesions contain a small proportion of clonal, neoplastic tumor cells that are difficult to identify and culture, or some of these polyclonal lesions may undergo full transformation during disease progression, probably when an actively proliferating cell acquires genetic alterations that provide a selective advantage, leading to the emergence of a truly neoplastic clone in the minority of cases of KS.24 Role of HHV-8/KSHV HIV Multiple agents, including cytomegalo virus, hepatitis-B virus, human herpes virus-6, HIV, and Mycoplasma penetrans, have been suspected in the past as causing KS; but none of these have been clearly shown to present in most cases and to have a causal association with KS.24 Thus, although an infectious origin has long been suspected, it was only in 1994 that HHV-8/KSHV was first detected in KS specimens.25 KSHV is now considered the causative agent of AIDS-associated, classic, endemic, and iatrogenic KS. In addition, it is also believed to be the causative agent of primary effusion lymphomas (body cavity based lymphomas),26 multicentric Castlemans disease,26,27 and possibly oral plasmablastic lymphomas.28 Serological studies have indicated that unlike other human herpes viruses, KSHV is not ubiquitous.26 The seroprevalence of KSHV is low in the United States and parts of Europe (ranging from 0 to 20%), rising in Mediterranean countries to reach levels greater than 50% in some geographic regions of Africa.12 In North America and Europe, primary infection with KSHV mainly occurs among adult homosexual men and is transmitted principally via sexual contact; the KSHV seroprevalence being associated with the number of sexual partners and sexual practices.12,26 Transmission of KSHV via saliva has also been documented.29 In African populations, KSHV infection seems to occur largely before puberty through casual family and community contacts; oral secretions being a potential vehicle of non-sexual horizontal spread; vertical transmission of KSHV being insignificant.12,26 A recent study conducted in Malawi, Africa, has also shown that, apparently, healthy people in regions where KSHV is endemic can be infected by multiple strains.30 However, it is still unclear if this reflects a simultaneous co-infection by several KSHV strains, reactivation of latent strains, or super infection.30 KSHV is lymphotropic and is more closely related to Epstein-Barr virus and herpes virus saimiri than to other herpes viruses.5,27 The KSHV genome contains several genes related to cellular genes involved in cell proliferation and host responses that probably contribute to viral pathogenesis.26,31 The pathogenesis of AIDS-associated KS is multifactorial and involves KSHV, altered expression and response to cytokines, and stimulation of KS growth by HIV trans-activation protein (tat).32,33 KSHV is a necessary, but solely not a sufficient cause of KS.34 It encodes protein homologues of interleukin-6, chemokines of the macrophage inflammatory protein family, cell cycle regulators of the cyclin family, and anti-apoptotic genes of the bcl-2 family.26 The HIV tat protein can promote the growth of spindle cells of endothelial origin, but only in presence of inflammatory cytokines.32,33 The synergistic relationship between inflammatory cytokines and HIV tat protein, when combined with the immunosuppression associated with AIDS, may provide an explanation for aggressive nature of AIDS-associated KS compared to relatively non-aggressive, classic Mediterranean form in which the HIV tat protein does not play a role.33 The sequence of events creating the inflammatory angiogenic environment has been described by Dezube 33 as follows: 1) circulating KS progenitor cells and cells latently infected with KSHV seek sites of pre-existing inflammation; in the case of oral KS, pre-existing inflammation may include acute and/or chronic periodontal disease sites; 2) exposure to inflammatory cytokines such as interferon-ÃŽ ± (IFN-ÃŽ ±) results in differentiation of latently infected cells into KS-like spindle cells and induces KSHV reactivation; 3) reactivation of KSHV leads to expression of potentially pathogenic genes such as viral interleukin-6 that in turn, can activate vascular endothelial growth factor and induce angiogenesis; 4) viral lytic replication in the same cells activates inflammation, which also may play a role in angiogenesis; 5) the creation of inflammatory-angiogenic environment increases the availability of infectable cells, i.e. endothelial and KS spindle cells, which are then included in the development of the lesion; 6) cells also become responsive to HIV tat protein; and 7) the HIV tat protein augments the inflammatory-angiogenic state by the increasing angiogenic activities of basic fibroblast growth factor, IFN-ÃŽ ±, and vascular endothelial growth factor by mimicking the effects of the external matrix proteins fibronectin and vitronectin and by increasing the expression of matrix metalloproteinases. Prognosis and Management The prognosis of patients with AIDS-associated KS is often related to factors other than the tumor burden itself. In 1989, the AIDS trial council group devised the TIS staging system, based upon the extent of tumor (T), the status of immune system in terms of CD4+ T-cell count (I), and the presence of other systemic HIV-related illness (S).12 At present there is no treatment for AIDS-associated KS. Treatment is thus directed towards the elimination, or at least reduction of cosmetically unacceptable lesions, pain, and edema, as well as the relief of symptoms caused by visceral involvement.33 Local therapy may be effective for limited disease, but systemic therapy is required for disseminated KS.33 Highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) is useful in the management of AIDS-associated KS, as it will reduce the HIV viral load and raise the CD4+ T-cell count, both of which contribute to the pathogenesis of KS. Recent reports have described a reduced incidence or regression of KS in HIV-infected individuals treated with HAART that includes at least one protease inhibitor. Both in vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that protease inhibitors have a direct anti-angiogenic, anti-KS, and anti tumor activity at concentrations likely to be present in the blood of treated individuals. HAART causes fall in KSHV levels in the blood presumably because of a reduction in HIV proliferation, HIV/KSHV-mediated oncogenesis, and HIV-induced immunosuppresion.12 Older approaches of managing oral KS have included local irradiation, intralesional injections of vinblastine and 3% sodium tetradecyl sulphate, laser therapy, surgical excision, cytotoxic therapy with vinca alkaloids (vinblastine, vincristine, and vinorelbine), bleomycin, anthracyclines, paclitaxel, and liposomal anthracyclines. However, only five agents are commonly used for the treatment of KS: alitretinoin gel for topical therapy, and liposomal daunorubicin and oloxorubicin, paclitaxel, and IFN-ÃŽ ± for systemic therapy.12 The strong angiogenic component of KS makes it particularly suitable for treatment with drugs that act as anti-angiogenic agents such as thalidomide and newer agents such as matrix metalloproteinases and IM-862. Based upon the apoptotic and anti-proliferative activity of iron chelation on KS cells, it is also suggested that withdrawal strategies may be effective. Several retinoid compounds have also been tested in clinical trials for KS, with a response rate of 23-37%.12 Direct antiviral approaches targeting KSHV have been proposed. In vitro studies have shown that KSHV is very sensitive to cidofovir, moderately sensitive to ganciclovir and foscarnet, but only weakly sensitive to acyclovir. However, the efficacy of cidofovir in vivo has yet to be proven. IFN-ÃŽ ± may inhibit infection or reactivation by KSHV. Single agent therapy with IFN-ÃŽ ±, is associated with significant toxicity, but when in combination with anti retroviral agents it may have some application for disseminated, but non-rapidly progressive KS.12 Conclusions Studies pertaining to KS suggest epidemiologic patterns that are consistent with a sexually transmitted agent, before a viral agent HHV-8/KSHV was identified, and that it is strictly not an opportunistic infectious agent related to HIV/AIDS-associated KS. Immune suppression along with genetic and/or environmental factors may interplay in variable combinations in the eventual causation of KS. Currently, a wide array of treatment modalities for KS, are aimed at elimination of cosmetically unacceptable lesions, reduction of unsightly edema and lymphadenopathy, and to alleviate symptoms caused by systemic involvement.

Understanding the Holocaust through Art Spiegelmans Maus Essay

The experience of being in the Holocaust is hard to imagine. The physical pain and fear that a survivor of the Holocaust felt could never fully be understood by anyone other than a fellow survivor. The children of survivors may not feel the physical pain and agony as their parents did, but they do feel the psychological effects. For this reason Artie and his father could never connect. The Holocaust built a wall between them that was hard to climb. Artie makes an attempt to overcome the wall between him and his father by writing the comic Maus about his father’s life in hopes to grow closer to him and understand him better, yet he struggles in looking past his father’s picky habits and hypocritical attitude. Artie’s father, Valdek, as he knew him growing up was stingy. He was stingy with money, food, matches, and even toothpicks. All the food on his plate had to be eaten, or it would be served to him the next night and the night after that until it was gone. Valdek’s obsessive behavior about not wasting anything aggravated Artie to no end. "He grabs paper towels from restrooms so he won’t have to buy napkins or tissues," vented Artie to his stepmother. Once Artie used an extra match and Valdek yelled at him for his wastefulness. His life could never compare to how hard Valdek’s was, and this bothered Artie. At the very opening of the story, Artie cries because his friends leave him when he falls off his skates and his father tells him that, "If you lock them together in a room with no food for a week then you could see what it is, friends!" All things relate to the Holocaust for Valdek and this makes Artie feel guilty for not having such a hard life and fo r that feeling of guilt Artie becomes angry and distances himself fr... ...in his life still plagued him. As a result he wrote Maus. It not only allowed him to enter into his father’s world, but also gave him an objective view of his relationship with his father. He spent many afternoons with his father in his pursuit of understanding. He became aware of the events in his father’s past, but still could not comprehend why his father could not put it behind him. He could not understand why other survivors of the Holocaust could move on, but his father could not. Artie is overwhelmed by the events of his life. He is dealing with the death of his mother, and a father who can’t let go of the past. He longs to understand the world of his father and talk to him once without arguing, but the walls have been built up too high that even after his father’s death, although more enlightened, he is just as confused as to who his father was.

Negative Effects of Technology Essay

The advantages of technology are undeniable, electronic devices make our life much easier as we can save time and money when using them: cars, microwaves, mobile phones†¦ In contrast, there are a lot of disadvantages that we don’t take into account. The recession is not the only cause of unemployment: technology has enabled multinational companies to replace their workers with machines. This business process has created job redundancies and downsizing. In addition, local agencies and music stores have been forced to shut down since items are available online. Technology may have made communication quicker, easier and more convenient but it has also brought along privacy issues. People are now worried about their once private information becoming public knowledge. In order to feel secure at the work place is necessary to be in constant learning mode, as technology keeps on changing every day. There is always a new discovery or development that may be useful to make our job safer. Also, the more technology that we create the more technology that we dispose of. This problem is exponentially growing. Practically everyone has a cell phone which has a life span of about 3 or 4 years, when we replace them they are usually thrown into a big pile and released harmful agents into the environment. Related to cell phones, I have found 3 key points that explain how do they affect on humans health: 1. First of all, studies have not shown a consistent link between cell phone use and cancers of the brain, nerves, or other tissues of the head or neck. More research is needed because cell phone technology and how people use cell phones have been changing rapidly. 2. Nevertheless, you need to know that cell phones emit radiofrequency energy, a form of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation, which can be absorbed by tissues closest to where the phone is held. 3. The amount of radiofrequency energy we are exposed to depends on the technology of the phone, the distance between the phone’s antenna and the user, the extent and type of use, and the userâ €™s distance from cell phone towers. Technology has also affected society in general. Even the fact that we can now communicate at any time anywhere may sound like a good thing, the fact remains that people do not interact personally with one another as often as they used to. This has affected the interaction between people as it has created a barrier in personable, face-to-face communication. As a result, there are certain habits that are losing relevance among people such as going out to play a basketball match or meeting a friend at a coffee shop. This is happening because people don’t feel the need to step outside of their home to find entertainment and fun. Technology is a privilege to have but interaction with other people is crucial, and being responsible for one’s actions and not letting technology rule our lives is very important too. I am not saying that all technology is bad or evil, but we do need to be careful that we don’t become slaves to our own creations. http://www.articleonlinedirectory.com/128143/the-negative-effects-of-advancing-technology-on-society.html http://www.buzzle.com/articles/negative-impact-of-technology.html http://www.articlesbase.com/science-articles/negative-effects-of-modern-day-technology-1106666.html Bibliography:  · Anon, 2009. Negative effects of modern day technology. Available at: http://www.articlesbase.com/science-articles/negative-effects-of-modern-day-technology-1106666.html [Accessed December 13, 2012].  · Aydan Corkern, 2009. The Negative Effects Of Advancing Technology On Society. Available at: http://www.articleonlinedirectory.com/128143/the-negative-effects-of-advancing-technology-on-society.html [Accessed December 14, 2012].  · Veethi Telang, 2011. Negative Impact of technology. Available at: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/negative-impact-of-technology.html [Accessed December 14, 2012].

Where to Get Condoms in College

Where to Get Condoms in College You might be interested in a one-night hook-up or you might be in a relationship with the love of your life. Either way, if youre having sex, you need to use protection. And theres simply no excuse for not having condoms available when you need them during your time in college. While most students know, however, that having sex in college is pretty common, not everyone knows where to go to get condoms. So just what are your options? Buy Them Yourself You dont have to know exactly when and where youll be sleeping with someone to be prepared. If you think theres a chance that youll be having sex, be ready. Take a walk, catch the bus, ride your bike, or otherwise get your tush to a nearby grocery store, drug store, Target, WalMart, or any other major store that sells condoms. Additionally, if youre at a big school, chances are good that theres at least one store nearby that caters to the sexually-active college crowd. Go see what the buzz is all about and take a walk to the condom store or sex shop right down the street. (Embarrassed to go in? Think about it: You should be embarrassed not to if youre sexually active but not being responsible.) Ask a Friend It can be your best friend that you met on the first day of Orientation. It can be someone you kinda know from your Chemistry class. But if youre in need of protection, ask a friend. They can either hook you up with condoms they have access to or direct you to someone or somewhere else that does. Ask Your Roomie In a good roommate relationship, roommates share all kinds of stuff, from clothes to basketballs to printer paper. If you know your roommate has a condom stash and you dont, see if you can have a condom or two until you can get your own supply. Note: Make sure to ask before taking your roommates condoms, however. Your poor planning now shouldnt result in your roommates awkward situation later. Check the Resident Hall Bathroom Many campuses have a supply of condoms in the residence hall bathrooms for residents to use as needed. If you think youre going to be needing a condom in 5 minutes or in 5 months, grab a handful. After all, if theyre there and you need em, theres nothing wrong with taking them. The wrong choice in this situation would be to not take them when you should. Check With Residence Hall Staff As a former hall director, believe me: Your request for condoms will not be the first, nor the strangest, request that your hall staff has ever received. Ask if theres a supply for the hall that you can have access to (such as the infamous candy-and-condoms bucket that often is brought by the RA while he or she is doing rounds). After all, whats more awkward: Asking your residence hall staff for a condom or dealing with an unexpected, unplanned situation later? Your Campus Health Center or Health Promotions Office Have a few extra minutes on a lazy afternoon? Stop by your campus health center and grab a few condoms from their stash. Chances are they will always be in full supply and the condoms will most likely be free. Spending a few minutes in the health center can save you a lot of time, stress, and problems later. Thats what theyre there for, right? Stop in at the Student Health Clinic You know the place you head when you have a nasty flu? Theyre called a student health clinic for all kinds of reasons and because they help students deal with all kinds of situations. Be proactive about your health and get some condoms when you next stop in. Ask Your Partner Practicing safe(r) sex is the responsibility of both partners in a relationship. If you dont have access to condoms, ask your partner if he or she can bring some. And even if its a random, unexpected encounter, you still have the same responsibility to yourself to be safe. If your partner doesnt have protection and you dont either, find some. Doing so is a lot easier than dealing with the consequences of unprotected sex.

Discuss the rationale behind the WS and Essay

Discuss the rationale behind the WS and Essay Discuss the rationale behind the WS and Essay Discuss the rationale behind the WS and PS curves (12 marks) Keynesian macroeconomics assumes that markets are imperfect and this as the result of lack of competition. The implication of imperfect market is that agents are no longer price takers as in perfect markets, but become price setters. In product markets the firms are price setters considering the elasticity of demand which is partly dependant on competition. In the labour market, workers are the wage setters. Through collective bargaining Trade Unions set wage rates, considering the elasticity for demand for labour and the level of local unemployment. â€Å"A worker who is employed in an area of high unemployment earns less than an identical individual who works in a region with low joblessness†. ( www.njfac.org/us19.htm last accessed on the 19th March 2014). When price taking behaviour is accepted, it changes how macroeconomics is analysed as inflation, unemployment, monitory policy, fiscal policy etc. The wage equation (WS) sets a relationship between the wage (WP) and the level of unemployment (E) in the economy, and is considered from the worker’s point of view. WS shows the rates of real wages that would fulfil the level of expectations of workers at different levels of unemployment. The Price Setting equation (PS) also sets up a relationship between the wage (WP) and the level of unemployment (E) but is viewed from the prospective of the firm. PS shows the rate of real wages that would fulfil the expectations of the firm at different levels of unemployment. When the two curves meet, the real wage at the point of intersection will meet the expectation of both the firm and the worker; thus equilibrium is established by the intersection of the PS and WS. When Trade Unions / workers bargain with employers regarding the money wage (W) consideration must be given to the state of employment and the expected selling price level of the product in the future. With employment, the higher the level of employment (E), there is a lower level of unemployment (U) this then provides an opportunity for greater bargaining power in relation to the wage rate. With regards to the expected product price, if it is anticipated that product price will rise during the next period, trade unions will seek a higher wage rate to compensate for the higher prices. Wage setting Real Wage Curve (WS) The wage setting curve is upward slopping, similar to the labour supply curve, but lies above the latter. For any level of employment (E), the real wage implied by the wage setting equation is higher than the wage rate that would prevail at (E) if labour markets were competitive. The gap between the two curves represents the mark up (in real wage) per worker because of market imperfections. Reasons which can explain the mark-up in wage can include the monopoly power of the trade unions and the efficiency wage which is offered by employers. In considering Price- setting, firms will maximise profit when MR (marginal rate) = MC (marginal cost). This is true irrespective of the degree of competition within the market. With an imperfect product market the real wage that will maximise profit is less than the marginal productivity of labour, how much lower will depend upon the degree of imperfection due to the lack of competition. Price setting Wage Curve In the diagram above, the PS curve is depicted by a horizontal line rather than a downward slopping PS curve. This can be justified by making the assumptions f a constant MPL and constant mark-up, Є/(1-Є). The constant MPL also means that there is a constant output per worker (APL). The fixed output per worker is divided between profit and real wage. However if the mark-up is also constant, this means profits per worker is constant. Therefore, the real implied wage per worker is also constant, thus the flat PS curve. The labour market is in equilibrium when the WS and PS curves intersect: Wws = Wps At this point the real

Organization Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Organization Development - Essay Example Referring to the overall impact that individuals, groups and structures have on the behavior of the organizations, Organization behavior is what will eventually determine the direction that any organization takes in terms of ‘development’. There are various schools of thought that revolve around the terminology of OD, but a single comprehensive definition by for Organization Development can only be achieved if we incorporate the behavior, people and processes of an organization through one expression. OD can be defined as â€Å"The manner in which a company would grow over a certain period of time, as influenced by the individual and group culture within the body of the organization, and the interactions between different members. This growth pattern has to be adopted at all levels and it shows the extent to which an Organization can readily adapt to change and simultaneously, gain maximum advantage to meet its objectives†. Through this definition we can understand the end objective of OD as well as the tools and resources which will impact the process. More analysis of the expression tell the reader what will be the benefits for an organization which can make the most effective use of OD in a the most efficient manner. Companies with a robust OD framework in place will be better equipped to manage change and turn external opportunities into advantages for growth. The definitions and the field of OD have been discussed by experts with the help of suitable techniques and theories from applied behavioral sciences and related field. However, the definitions given initially have evolved and changed with the times to meet the requirements of changing nature of organizations. Once considered to be static, structured entities, organizations are now seen as being dynamic, flexible and able to rapidly adapt to changing environments. The explanations given for OD reflect

Forensic Evidence Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Forensic Evidence - Research Paper Example Current technological trends have revolutionized the methods of storing data along with different advanced access mechanisms. These systems facilitate law enforcement agencies by providing instant access to these characteristics. Although, computer forensics also facilitates in investigation of crimes within themselves in order to gather evidence associated with criminal activities that breaches violation of an organizations policy. The data can be extracted from storage devices including hard drives, flash drives, memory cards etc (Computer forensics – a critical need in computer, n.d ) Every online user leaves behind logs related to activities that he or she performs online. This digital traceability can reveal activities that are performed by the user on the Internet by identifying who has identified which files along with logs of each website visited. Temporary files can also reveal flash templates and buffered videos. These traceable logs, files, cookies, templates can fa cilitate a great deal to analyze crimes that are committed from computers and may provide solid evidence against the hacker or cyber-criminal. However, many users trust in files after deleting them from the hard drive but there are many ways and methods via which these files can be recovered. The operating system usually does not delete complete files from the hard drive, even if the user deletes the files from the recycling bin. The files are still present, until they are replaced or overwritten by new files. These traceability factors can lead to aid in forensic investigations and can track down criminals by investigating their computer. For instance, during the execution of a search warrant at the residence of John Robinson who was a serial killer, law enforcement agencies discovered two bodies that were badly decomposed along with seizing of five computers (Computer forensics, n.d ). After investigating computers, it was discovered that the serial killer John Robinson was using internet to find people to schedule a meeting. Afterwards they were killed by sexually assaulting them. These facts were only possible by forensic computing techniques and were not possible by physical evidence and investigation (Computer forensics, n.d ). However, many techniques are associated with forensic computing, few techniques are categorized in to two groups i.e. Graphical User Interface (GUI) based forensic tools and Command line forensic tools (Conklin 2005). The command line tools are relatively small, they can be stored in floppy disks as compared to heavy, and slow GUI based forensic tools. However, command line tools also share some disadvantages in terms of their limitations as they are not capable to identify .zip files and .cab files. GUI based tools provide a graphical user interface and is said to be user friendly because specialized knowledge is not required as compared to command line tools requiring commands on every operation. The disadvantage for GUI based t ools is that they are large and cannot be saved in a floppy disk (Conklin 2005). Similarly, organizations also require a proactive approach for threats that may penetrate within the internal network and extracts or expose sensitive information. There are many ways of forensic data acquisition on a network; we will only consider best practices. Network-Based Evidence Acquisition Practices Network management is effective on many vital management functions. If any one of them is not properly configured, effective network management is not possible. Data acquisition is classified as a vital management process that needs to be addresses proficiently. Likewise, Wireshark will only utilize data that is available